For two years, we have been conducting intensive fieldwork in the oases of Adrar (southern Algeria).
The foggara is an underground gallery, which drains water by gravity from the groundwater to the gardens. It was introduced in the 9th century and gave rise to a few hundred oases in southwestern Algeria. The foggara has supported so-called “hydraulic” societies for centuries, and the lives of thousands of families depend on it today. Agriculture in this region is only possible through irrigation.
Aeration well, Adrar. Community work to maintain the foggara. J.I. Robles, 2025.
During the summer, the entire community takes charge of cleaning and maintaining the underground drainage channels. This photograph is part of that collective effort called ‘tuiza’. The work is done in summer so that young people and children can participate in the cleaning activity. This contribution is important because the underground channels are very narrow, and children and young people find it easier to clean the earth and stones that accumulate in the channels throughout the year.
On leaving the underground, the water is accumulated in a small basin, qasri, bordered by a distributing comb, a piece of cut stone with holes, which determines the shares of the co-owners. The calculation of the water is done by the kayal, a hydraulic expert who knows the techniques of measurement. He uses the, hallafa, a measuring tool made of copper and drilled in several holes of different diameters, which is used to determine the volume of water. This system is recognized as World Material Heritage by UNESCO.
Responsible for measuring water flow using the halafa. J.I. Robles, 2025.
For two years, we have been sharing these tasks with those responsible for the oasis. This fieldwork methodology, based on participatory observation sessions, has allowed us to understand the complex water distribution system. It is an exceptional regulation system because distribution is based on flow volume rather than irrigation time.
The water that reaches each farm in the palm grove is calculated according to three hierarchical orders: ethnicity, religion and farm size. All this information is collected and recorded in a book, the Zmam, which is the core component of the entire foggara regulation system.
Zamam of the Ben Aissa oasis at the Djmáa meeting. J.I. Robles, 2025.
The zamam (register) is carefully kept at the oasis mosque. The imam of the village (ksar) of Othmane Ben Aissa showed us the book and even brought it to the meeting we held with the Djmaa (oasis management institution). These meetings functioned as semi-structured discussion groups, using a methodology halfway between group interviews and participant observation. It was an ethnographic technique perfectly suited to the ‘interaction matrix’ of oasis society.
The region has more than 3 million palm trees of different varieties. Date production in palm groves is a year-round task, from pollination in March, maintenance and irrigation, to harvesting in December. This production is intended for domestic use and even international markets. Within the palm groves, horticulture is practiced in a symbiotic polyculture system. These crops (vegetables and cereals), which use local seeds that are resistant to disease and heat, attract insects that contribute to pollination and protection of the palm groves, while supplementing and diversifying the income of oasis farmers.
The circular production cycle begins in October, once the intense summer temperatures – which can easily reach 50 degrees Celsius – have ended. After cleaning the palm trees, cereals are sown– wheat for the family’s bread, barley and corn for animal feed. All seed varieties are local and adapted to the oasis ecosystem. For generations, families have been selecting the best-adapted seeds. This selection is carried out mainly by the women of the household, as they are responsible for kneading and baking the bread. Their direct contact with the cultivated cereal gives them first-hand knowledge of the best varieties. Once the cereal has been sown, families fertilize the land with manure from the animals they raise, sheep, goats and chickens. Autumn irrigation then takes place. In January, the same sowing operation is carried out, this time for vegetables: onions, lettuce, beans and carrots. These vegetables form part of the daily diet and are especially used in the main dish: couscous. In this case too, the varieties grown are entirely indigenous. Palm trees play a fundamental role in this polyculture system, as their shade protects the soil from the sun, although the wedge-shaped leaves of the palm grove also allow some light to reach the ground. It is the perfect tree for a desert oasis.
In March, the cereal is harvested and the palm trees are pollinated. This is done by hand, palm tree by palm tree, using traditional techniques. After pollination, spring irrigation takes place. The dates are harvested between June and July. This marks the end of the farming cycle in the oases. During the summer, all the land rests under the strong heat of the Saharan desert sun, protected only by the shade of the immense palm groves.
Pollination of palm trees in March. J.I. Robles, 2025.
However, today, this socially and ecologically sustainable peasant production method is being redefined within the framework of an intensive agricultural economy based on the consumption of water extracted through wells and water pumps. An agricultural model that exports agricultural products from the desert to national and international markets. Food justice and security, which had been assured for decades, has become vulnerable. The tangible and intangible heritage represented by the foggaras is in decline. International experts in agricultural production agree that the future of healthy food sovereignty lies in strengthening the peasant production methods that today is represented by the economy of the oases irrigated by the sacred water of the foggaras.
Polyculture in the palm groves and oases of Adrar. J.I. Robles, 2025.